To examine the timeline of Muslim rulership, we need to explore the concept of khilafah (caliphate) and understand its significance, especially in its early phases. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in 11 AH (632 CE), leadership passed to the Khulafa al-Rashidun (Rightly Guided Caliphs). This period lasted until 41 AH (661 CE), ending with the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib (may Allah be pleased with him). Following his death, a significant split occurred.

Mu’awiyah, cousin of Uthman ibn Affan, from the Umayyad family, assumed rulership over the Muslim world. The Umayyads were known for their governance skills even before Islam. Mu’awiyah established his capital in Damascus. Initially, he faced opposition from Hasan, the son of Ali, but Hasan eventually relinquished his claim to authority, allowing the Umayyads to consolidate power.

One major change introduced by the Umayyads was the shift from the elective caliphate to hereditary kingship. When Mu’awiyah died, his son Yazid succeeded him, followed by Yazid’s son, Mu’awiyah II. However, Mu’awiyah II ruled briefly and showed little interest in governance. Power then passed to another branch of the Umayyad family, maintaining dynastic continuity. The Umayyads ruled for nearly 90 years until 750 CE.

In 747 CE, the Abbasid Revolution began, overthrowing the Umayyads in 750 CE. The Abbasids, another Quraysh clan closely related to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), claimed a greater right to rule. This marked a shift in leadership. Under the Abbasids, political leadership and religious authority diverged. The Rashidun era united both roles, but with the Umayyads, they split. Religious authority shifted to scholars (ulama), while political power stayed with rulers. This distinction became pronounced under the Abbasids.

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said, “The scholars are the inheritors of the prophets.” While rulers like the Umayyads expanded the empire—spreading Islam to North Africa, Spain, and parts of the Indian subcontinent—their role was political rather than religious. Exceptional figures, such as Salahuddin al-Ayyubi (Saladin), who was both a scholar and ruler, were rare.

After the Abbasid Revolution, the Muslim world fragmented. Abbasids lost practical authority within two centuries. Their theoretical sovereignty persisted, with local rulers nominally recognizing the caliph’s authority. For example, Salahuddin sought symbolic approval from the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, even though the caliph had little practical control.

The Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258 CE marked the end of Abbasid authority. The Mongols killed the caliph and destroyed the city, abolishing the Abbasid caliphate. A claimant emerged in Cairo, supported by the Mamluks, but recognition was limited to Mamluk-controlled territories. The concept of a unified caliphate never recovered, and fragmentation persisted.

By the mid-10th century, powers like the Seljuks and Fatimids rose, further diminishing Abbasid influence. The Mongol conquest and the rise of the Ottomans brought further changes. The Ottomans, inheriting the title of caliph later, ruled distinctly from the early caliphate.

Understanding this historical fragmentation is essential to dispelling the myth of a continuous, unified Muslim empire from Abu Bakr’s time (may Allah be pleased with him) to the Ottoman caliphate’s abolition in 1924. From 750 CE onward, the Muslim world was never under a single political authority.

Shaykh Firas Alkhateeb @khateeb88